Daniel Chandler (born 1952) is a British visual semiotician based since 2001 at the Department of Theatre, Film and Television Studies at Aberystwyth University, where he has taught since 1989. His best-known publication is the present book which is frequently used as a basis for university courses in semiotics, and the online version Semiotics for Beginners. He has a particular interest in the visual semiotics of gender and advertising.
In the chapter of Introduction, Chandler presents some basic definitions of semiotics and elaborates upon them. Little historical background is also offered and identifies two primary traditions in modern day semiotics: Saussurean French tradition of Semiology which emerges from Saussures’ work on language, and second is Charles Sanders Pierce’s tradition of Semiotics emerges from Peirce’s logical works. Chandler also highlights some basic differences between these two traditions. Next section discusses the relation of linguistics and semiotics, where the author emphasizes that the ‘science of signs’ was primarily established under the structural studies of language where language is considered the primary semiotic system. In fact, Saussure saw linguistics as a branch of ‘semiology’. While Roland Barthes reverses this relations and calls Semiology as a branch of linguistics. Next section on Langue and Parole highlights the primary object of study identified by Saussure. Saussure’s framework identifies langue as the object of study in linguistics and semiotics, the entire identification, interrelations, and modelling of signs are under this framework. Here, the primary distinction between langue and parole is that of system and usage, and it has often been criticized for being too rigid. The last section asks the question, ‘Why study semiotics?’ and attempts to answer it. The world is mediated through signs and hence to understand the world we need to understand the sign systems and their signification. The meaning does not lie in words or books, but we as a user actively create the meaning. Semiotics helps us understand the very notion of representation and the process of creating meaning through the existing texts and discourses.
The first chapter elaborates upon the models identified in the introduction. First section talks about the Saussurean model. Concepts in the model such as Signifier and Signified are defined: signifier is the sound-chain and signified is the concept that it invokes in our mind. Saussure’s elaboration is primarily from the perspective of speech. The relationship between the signifier and signified is non-natural; it is arbitrary and conventional. The idea of arbitrariness, in Saussure, is discussed only at lexical level. There is no mention of syntax to be arbitrary. This concept of arbitrariness establishes the autonomy of signifying system in relation to reality. It also allows the multiple interpretations as the signifier and signified are not intrinsically related. The relationship here is ontologically arbitrary which is not to say that they are socially or historically arbitrary too. They are like two sides of a page, if one side is torn the other side will also be affected. The signs in the system are in syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations, they get their value in this relative system.
The Peircean model presents the triadic sign as opposed to dyadic model of Saussure. The parts of signs presented by Peirce are the representamen, the interpretant, and the object. Sign’s form is representamen; the sense made by the sign is interpretant, and whatever sign refers to is object. The sign is a unity: what is represented, how it is represented, and how it is interpreted – all three elements are essential to be qualified as a sign. The interaction among these three is called Semiosis by Peirce. Peirce also offers the modes of signs depending on the relationship between the representamen and interpretant, they are: Iconic, Indexical, and Symbolic. The symbolic is the sign in Saussurean sense, the relationship here is arbitrary and conventional. In the iconic mode, the representamen resembles the interpretant, and in the indexical mode, the representamen and interpretant have cause and effect relationship. These three modes are not mutually exclusive: the same sign can be interpreted in any of these three modes.
The chapter also briefly includes the ideas of analogical and digital signs. Analogical signs here signify infinite subtleties. And a brief section is also considered on Eco’s distinction of ‘types and tokens.’ The same sign, which is a type, can be used for multiple times within the same text, what Eco refers to as token. A short account of Hjelmslev’s framework is offered who essentially upgrades the Saussurean model adding the ideas of substance and form to both the expression and content.
Chapter two, entitled “Signs and things,” deals with certain philosophical aspects of semiotic analysis and textual interpretations. For a semiotician, reality always involves representation. A defining trait of a sign is that it ‘stands for’ something. The belief that words are only names for things assumptions that things have independent existence. So, language-world isomorphism is a part of belief which means there will be things without the label through language. There will be lot of words that may refer to abstract ideas or things, and they may be purely imaginary. Thus, words do not only label the things but they label the concepts – concrete, abstract, or imaginary. Hence, it is argued that reality is created by the media. Author states that all words are abstractions and bear no direct correspondence with the ‘things’ in the world. In the discussion of the referentiality, author states that Saussure does not refer to reality outside the sign, while Peirce explicitly features as something beyond the sign to which sign vehicle refers. But for Peirce also reality can only be known via signs and hence determining the accuracy of the representation is a crucial issue. Author proceeds to discuss here the difference between philosophical idealism and philosophical realism. And then proceeds to talk about various modalities to identify the truthfulness of representation. Using social semiotics, author argues that claims of absolute truth of representation cannot be claimed, rather a particular propositions truth-value can be claimed. Thus, the media employed for the presentation of a text also becomes significant. Later, author brings the General Semantics into discussion to shed light on the over-abstraction on the language that we use. We have, now, come to an understanding which highlights that there cannot be representation without intention and interpretation.
Theorists like
Lacan emphasized on the primacy of Signifier. Highly variable or unidentifiable
connection with the signified leads to identify something called ‘empty
signified,’ the relation between the signifier and the signified is so thin
that it is unrecognizable here. The Saussurean example of two sides of a page
is not workable here. Author brings Baudrillard’s idea into discussion and
mentions four phases of development of modern signs. The chapter is concluded
with the fundamental question of ‘What is real?’
The chapter three, Analysing structures” begins with the differentiation and various views on the syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationship not only from the perspective of sign but also from the perspective of text. In the structural analysis, the distinction of syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations, and its importance in the generation of text is very crucial. It literally tells us that as a creator of the text, the users of the signs are non-neutral and they are making conscious choices. The syntagmatic dimension which helps developing narratives is not the only sequentiality. For example, there can be conceptual or spatial sequence. In spatial relations, various positioning of a sign and its relative interpretations are discussed. In the discussion on sequential dimension narrative is brought into discussion and also emphasized on the idea how narratives fill the gaps of (his)stories and plays a role in developing the subjectivity. The binary oppositions are discussed at length keeping the notions of marked-unmarked at the center, as the unmarked sign dictates the norm. Deconstruction is introduced to re-valorize the marked terms, especially from the work of Derrida. The last section talks about semiotic square as proposed by Greimas.
Fourth chapter, ‘Challenging the literal’ begins with the discussion of rhetoric and troops. With reference to ‘rhetorical turn’ author claims that language is a non-neutral medium and hence, every linguistic choice we make matters. While discussing the figurative language, author insists on the importance of cultural naturalization of non-literal usages. A section is presented devoted to the idea of metaphor and its importance from cognitive perspective; here, the author says that in metaphoric expressions a signifier stands for another signified. Section on metonymy semiotically defines the metonym and claims that it foregrounds signifier. The section on synecdoche discusses issues in the definition of it. The section on irony explains the term and difficulty in identifying it, because it is primarily a shift in modality. Master tropes and talks about two axes: first introduced by Jameson which says that metaphor, synecdoche, metonymy, and irony are four master tropes, while second by Jakobson emphasizes on metaphor and metonymy and associates them with paradigm and syntagm respectively. The discussion on connotation and denotation also highlights the difference between literal and extensional meaning. The last section deals with Myth as proposed by Barthes. The myth according to him is the dominant ideology, the way of naturalizing the dominant beliefs. A semiotician’s job, according to author, is to de-naturalize these tropes and myths, but it cannot be stripped down to the literal. It makes us aware about our socio-cultural biases.
The fifth chapter deals with the idea of codes. Following the Jakobson’s model it states that every text follows the convention of codes. Codes provide the framework for the interpretation of signs. In a way, the signs have their status if significance only in the realm of some code. From the perspective of Hall without operation of code, there is no possibility of intelligible discourse. The chapter introduces and discusses various types of codes. In the discussion of social codes, the reference to Sapir-Whorf hypothesis where it is argued that we see the world influenced by the language we use. The discussion of cinematic editing referred to invisible editing arguing that the process of codification takes place gradually. This process will not allow us, as a viewer, to see the changes in codes and cuts in editing process.
Chapter six deals with interrelationships of the text and different types of interactions within and between texts. It discusses the issues of intertextuality, intratextuality, and bricolage. On the other hand, it also analyses the creation and address to the subject in the process of the semiosis. While chapter seven talks about the weaknesses and strengths of the semiotics as an approach and presents some of the criticisms of the structuralist semiotics.
It is one of the most accessible books for the beginners of the semiotics. The glossary at the end of the book also helps a lot for the new readers. This book is a must read for anyone who is interested in any aspect of semiotics.
Comments
Post a Comment